Table 3 Results of included studies

Widener (2018)^a

Grocery store count with a time weighted KD estimate activity space of 1%

Grocery store purchases

RR: 1.00; 90%CI 0.99, 1.02

Convenience store purchases

RR: 0.99; 90%CI 0.96, 1.03

Restaurant purchases

RR: 0.99; 90%CI 0.99, 1.01

Purchases for now

RR: 0.99; 90%CI 0.99, 1.00

Purchases for later

RR: 1.01; 90%CI 1.00, 1.02

Limited-service restaurant count with a time weighted KD estimate activity space of 1%

Grocery store purchases

RR: 0.99; 90%CI 0.99, 0.99

Convenience store purchases

RR: 1.00; 90%CI 0.99, 1.02

Restaurant purchases

RR: 1.01; 90%CI 1.00, 1.01

Purchases for now

RR: 1.01; 90%CI 1.00, 1.01

Purchases for later

RR: 0.99; 90%CI 0.99, 0.99

Convenience store count with a time weighted KD estimate activity space of 1%

Grocery store purchases

RR: 1.02; 90%CI 1.00, 1.03

Convenience store purchases

RR: 1.00; 90%CI 0.96, 1.04

Restaurant purchases

RR: 1.01; 90%CI 0.97, 1.05

Purchases for now

RR: 0.99; 90%CI 0.98, 1.00

Purchases for later

RR: 1.01; 90%CI 0.99, 1.02

Fruit and vegetable count with a time weighted KD estimate activity space 1%

Grocery store purchases

RR: 0.99; 90%CI 0.95, 1.04

Convenience store purchases

RR: 0.95; 90%CI 0.81, 1.09

Restaurant purchases

RR: 1.01; 90%CI 0.97, 1.05

Purchases for now

RR: 1.01; 90%CI 0.97, 1.04

Purchases for later

RR: 0.98; 90%CI 0.95, 1.02

Grocery store count with a time weighted KD estimate activity space of 10%

Grocery store purchases

RR: 1.00; 90%CI 0.98, 1.03

Convenience store purchases

RR: 1.06; 90%CI 0.99, 1.15

Restaurant purchases

RR: 1.01; 90%CI 0.99, 1.02

Purchases for now

RR: 1.01; 90%CI 0.99, 1.03

Purchases for later

RR: 1.01; 90%CI 0.99, 1.03

Convenience store count with a time weighted KD estimate activity space of 10%

Grocery store purchases

RR: 0.99; 90%CI 0.98, 1.01

Convenience store purchases

RR: 0.99; 90%CI 0.96, 1.02

Restaurant purchases

RR: 1.00; 90%CI 0.99, 1.08

Purchases for now

RR: 1.00; 90%CI 0.99, 1.01

Purchases for later

RR: 0.99; 90%CI 0.99, 1.01

Limited-service restaurant count with a time weighted KD estimate activity space 10%

Grocery store purchases

RR: 1.01; 90%CI 0.99, 1.03

Convenience store purchases

RR: 1.01; 90%CI 0.95, 1.07

Restaurant purchases

RR: 0.99; 90%CI 0.98, 1.01

Purchases for now

RR: 0.99; 90%CI 0.98, 1.01

Purchases for later

RR: 1.01; 90%CI 0.99, 1.02

Fruit and vegetable count with a time weighted KD estimate activity space of 1%

Grocery store purchases

RR: 1.02; 90%CI 0.95, 1.10

Convenience store purchases

RR: 0.78; 90%CI 0.56, 1.02

Restaurant purchases

RR: 1.03; 90%CI 0.96, 1.10

Purchases for now

RR: 1.00; 90%CI 0.94 1.06

Purchases for later

RR: 0.99; 90%CI 0.99, 1.06

Wray (2021)^b

Frequent exposure to quick service restaurants and ads

Quick service purchases

OR: 1.50; 95%CI 0.89, 2.60

Restaurant purchases

OR: 0.88; 95%CI 0.47, 1.66

Grocery purchases

OR: 0.83; 95%CI 0.55, 1.27

Variety purchases

OR: 1.33; 95%CI 0.70, 2.57

All types of purchases

OR: 1.01; 95%CI 0.68, 1.51

Frequent exposure to restaurants and ads

Quick service purchases

OR: 0.90; 95%CI 0.43, 1.90

Restaurant purchases

OR: 0.35; 95%CI 0.09, 1.12

Grocery purchases

OR: 0.98; 95%CI 0.49, 1.93

Variety purchases

OR: 0.51; 95%CI 0.15, 1.56

All types of purchases

OR: 0.94; 95%CI 0.51, 1.82

Frequent exposure to grocery stores and ads

Quick service purchases

OR: 2.72; 95%CI 0.62, 15.3

Restaurant purchases

OR: 6.79; 95%CI 1.06, 44.9

Grocery purchases

OR: 1.78; 95%CI 0.44, 7.55

Variety purchases

OR: 4.66; 95%CI 0.46, 82.8

All types of purchases

OR: 2.88; 95%CI 0.75, 14.9

Frequent exposure to variety outlets and ads

Quick service purchases

OR: 0.22, 95%CI 0.05, 0.83

Restaurant purchases

OR: 1.25; 95%CI 0.27, 5.08

Grocery purchases

OR: 0.88; 95%CI 0.33, 2.31

Variety purchases

OR: 0.87; 95%CI 0.17, 4.35

All types of purchases

OR: 0.56; 95%CI 0.22, 1.48

Sadler (2016)^c

Junk food outlets

Junk food purchase

OR: 1.17; 95%CI 1.14, 1.21

1-min increase in exposure to junk food outlets

Junk food purchase

OR: 1.13; 95%CI 1.06, 1.20

Junk food outlet exposure through trips made by car

Junk food purchase

OR: 1.22; 95%CI 1.16, 1.28

Junk food outlet exposure through trip made by bus

Junk food purchase

OR: 1.02; 95%CI 0.92, 1.13

Junk food exposure through trips made to school

Junk food purchase

OR: 1.22; 95%CI 1.12, 1.33

Junk food exposure through trips made from school

Junk food purchase

OR: 1.12; 95%CI 1.08, 1.16

1-min junk food exposure among women

Junk food purchase

OR: 1.19; 95%CI 1.15, 1.24

1-min junk food exposure among men

Junk food purchase

OR: 1.12; 95%CI 1.06, 1.19

Food outlets and dietary intake

Shearer (2015)^e

GPS based accessibility to convenience stores

Fruit and vegetable consumption

r = 0.14

Calories

r = − 0.02

Diet quality

r = 0.14

Frequency of fast food consumption

r = − 0.07

Frequency of ready-made food consumption

r = 0.08

GPS based accessibility to fast food

locations

Fruit and vegetable consumption

r = 0.10

Calories

r = − 0.03

Diet quality

r = 0.09

Frequency of fast food consumption

r = − 0.09

Frequency of ready-made food consumption

r = 0.04

GPS based accessibility to restaurants

Fruit and vegetable consumption

r = 0.07

Calories

r = − 0.03

Diet quality

r = 0.08

Frequency of fast food consumption

r = − 0.04

Frequency of ready-made food consumption

r = 0.04

GPS based accessibility to grocery stores

Fruit and vegetable consumption

r = 0.10

Calories

r = − 0.01

Diet quality

r = 0.06

Frequency of fast food consumption

r = − 0.02

Frequency of ready-made food consumption

r = 0.06

Zenk (2011)^e

1 neighborhood fast food outlet density with one standard deviation ellipse

Saturated fat intake

β 0.19; SE: 2.00

2 + neighborhood fast food outlet density with one standard deviation ellipse

Saturated fat intake

β − 2.91; SE: 1.80

1 neighborhood fast food outlet density with one standard deviation ellipse

Fruit and vegetable intake

β − 0.01; SE: 0.14

2 + neighborhood fast food outlet density with one standard deviation ellipse

Fruit and vegetable intake

β − 0.07; SE: 0.13

1 neighborhood fast food outlet density with one standard deviation ellipse

Whole grain intake

β 0.12; SE: 0.14

2 + neighborhood fast food outlet density with one standard deviation ellipse

Whole grain intake

β: − 0.08; SE: 0.13

Ellipse fast food outlet density

Saturated fat intake

β 1.29; SE: 1.18

fruit and vegetable intake

β 0.07; SE: 0.08

whole grain intake

β 0.04; SE: 0.09

1 neighborhood fast food outlet density on the daily path area

Saturated fat intake

β 0.29; SE: 1.94

2 + neighborhood fast food outlet density on the daily path area

Saturated fat intake

β − 2.78; SE: 1.66

1 neighborhood fast food outlet density on the daily path area

Fruit and vegetable intake

β 0.01; SE: 0.14

2 + neighborhood fast food outlet density on the daily path area

Fruit and vegetable intake

β − 0.03; SE: 0.12

1 neighborhood fast food outlet density on the daily path area

Whole grain intake

β 0.13; SE: 0.14

2 + neighborhood fast food outlet density on the daily path area

Whole grain intake

β: − 0.02; SE: 0.12

Fast food outlet density on the daily path area

Saturated fat intake

β 3.72; SE: 1.42

fruit and vegetable intake

β − 0.09; SE: 0.10

Whole grain intake

β − 0.27; SE: 0.10

Supermarket availability with one standard deviation ellipse

Saturated fat intake

β 0.24; SE: 1.59

Fruit and vegetable intake

β − 0.02; SE: 0.11

Whole grain intake

β − 0.18; SE: 0.11

Supermarket availability on the daily path area

Saturated fat intake

β 0.95; SE: 1.80

Fruit and vegetable intake

β − 0.04; SE: 0.12

Whole grain intake

β − 0.17; SE: 0.13

Elliston (2020)^f

Number of food outlets

Eating/Non-eating behavior

AUC-ROC > 0.5, p < 0.001

Gustafson (2013)^g

Availability of healthy food venues

Fruit and vegetable intake

OR: 0.91; 95%: 0.52, 1.50

Sweetened beverages

OR: 0.66; 95%CI 0.36, 1.24

Red meat

OR: 1.04; 95%CI 0.59, 1.83

Milk

OR: 0.84; 95%CI 0.46, 1.57

Baked good and sweets

OR: 0.82; 95% CI 0.47, 1.41

Cereal

OR: 1.24; 95%CI 0.70, 2.20

Ghosh Roy (2019)^h

Food environment around home

Snack intake

OR: 0.7; 95%CI 0.6–1.0

Seto (2016)ⁱ

All types of food outlets

Portion size

β 0.32; 95% 0.16, 0.49

Bakery

Portion size

β 5.27; 95% 1.36, 9.17

Bar

Portion size

β 6.12; 95% 2.44, 9.79

Café

Portion size

β 6.16; 95% 3.16, 9.15

Convenience stores

Portion size

β 1.75; 95% 0.53, 2.98

Food

Portion size

β 0.33; 95% 0.16, 0.50

Grocery or supermarket

Portion size

β 12.21; 95% 0.16, 0.49

Meal delivery

Portion size

β 14.39; 95% 4.55, 24.23

Meal takeaway

Portion size

β 14.71; 95% 7.57, 21.84

Restaurant

Portion size

β 0.45; 95% 0.23, 0.67

Liu (2020)^j

Fast food outlets in a 500-m buffer

Fast food consumption

IRR: 1.08; 95% CI 0.99,1.16

Fast food outlets in a 1-km buffer

Fast food consumption

IRR:1.14; 95% CI 1.02,1.26

Fast food outlets in a 1,5-km buffer

Fast food consumption

IRR:1.14; 95% CI 1.00,1.29

Ratio of fast food outlets

Fast food consumption

IRR: 1.48; 95% CI 1.03,2.12S

Christian (2012)^k

Activity based retailed food environment index

Whole grain intake

OR: 0.83; 95%CI 0.70,0.90

Fruits and vegetable intake

OR: 0.86; 95%CI 0.72, 1.02

Added sugar

OR: 0.93; 95%CI 0.80, 1.08

Red meat

OR: 1.05; 95%CI 0.94, 1.18

Fried potatoes

OR: 0.98; 95%CI 0.86, 1.11

Overweight

OR: 1.02; 95%CI 0.91, 1.14

Obesity

OR: 1.18; 95%CI 1.00, 1.38

Food intake and metabolic outcomes

Burgoine (2015)^l

All food outlets around home and school in the second tertile

Body Mass Index

β: 0.16; 95%CI − 0.44, 0.75

All food outlets around home and school in the third tertile

Body Mass Index

β: − 0.15; 95%CI − 0.76, 0.45

Takeaway food outlets around home and school in the second tertile

Body Mass Index

β: 0.32; 95%CI − 0.29, 0.94

Takeaway food outlets around home and school in the third tertile

Body Mass Index

β: 0.15; 95%CI − 0.44, 0.75

Tamura (2018)^m

Fast food outlets within 200 m of GPS-based buffers

Body Mass Index

β: − 0.22; 95%CI − 0.47, 0.03

Systolic blood pressure

β: − 0.57; 95%CI − 1.08, -0.06

Diastolic blood pressure

β: − 0.36; 95%CI -0.70, -0.02

Wait service restaurants within 200 m of GPS-based buffers

Body Mass Index

β: − 0.19; 95%CI − 0.43, 0.06

Systolic blood pressure

β: − 0.53; 95%CI − 0.98, -0.09

Diastolic blood pressure

β: − 0.30; 95%CI − 0.60, -0.00

Corner stores within 200 m of GPS-based buffers

Body Mass Index

β: − 0.52; 95%CI − 2.62, 1.58

Systolic blood pressure

β: − 3.04; 95%CI − 5.81, -0.28

Diastolic blood pressure

β: − 1.53; 95%CI − 3.60, 0.53

Grocery stores within 200 m of GPS-based buffers

Body Mass Index

β: − 0.27; 95%CI − 0.59, 0.06

Systolic blood pressure

β: − 1.11; 95%CI − 1.88, − 0.34

Diastolic blood pressure

β: − 0.68; 95%CI − 1.28, − 0.08

Supermarkets within 200 m of GPS-based buffers

Body Mass Index

β: − 0.67; 95%CI − 1.36, 0.01

Systolic blood pressure

β: − 1.69; 95%CI − 3.40, 0.02

Diastolic blood pressure

β: − 1.14; 95%CI − 2.33, 0.06

Fast food outlets within 400 m of GPS-based buffers

Body Mass Index

β: − 0.22; 95%CI − 0.50, 0.05

Systolic blood pressure

β: -0.60; 95%CI − 1.16, − 0.05

Diastolic blood pressure

β: − 0.35; 95%CI − 0.70, 0.00

Wait service restaurants within 400 m of GPS-based buffers

Body Mass Index

β: − 0.19; 95%CI − 0.49, 0.11

Systolic blood pressure

β: − 0.63; 95%CI − 1.13, − 0.13

Diastolic blood pressure

β: − 0.35; 95%CI − 0.71, 0.00

Corner stores within 400 m of GPS-based buffers

Body Mass Index

β: − 1.02; 95%CI − 3.48, 1.45

Systolic blood pressure

β: − 3.30; 95%CI − 6.77, 0.16

Diastolic blood pressure

β: − 1.15; 95%CI − 3.74, 1.45

Grocery stores within 400 m of GPS-based buffers

Body Mass Index

β: − 0.37; 95%CI − 0.82, 0.08

Systolic blood pressure

β: − 1.34; 95%CI − 2.34, − 0.33

Diastolic blood pressure

β: − 0.82; 95%CI − 1.70, 0.06

Supermarkets within 400 m of GPS-based buffers

Body Mass Index

β: − 0.93; 95%CI − 1.76, − 0.10

Systolic blood pressure

β: − 2.50; 95%CI − 4.85, − 0.16

Diastolic blood pressure

β: − 1.57; 95%CI − 3.01, -0.13

Wang (2018)ⁿ

Unhealthy food environment exposure index based on environmental context cubes with inverse-square distance decay function in various spatial and temporal resolutions

Body Mass Index

OR: 6.81; 95%CI 1.76, 45.3

Unhealthy food environment exposure index based on environmental context cubes with negative-exponent distance decay function in different spatial and temporal resolutions

Body Mass Index

OR: 3.13; 95%CI 1.08, 11.47